Supply and substitution options for selected critical raw materials: Cobalt, niobium, tungsten, yttrium and rare earths elements

European industry is dependent on the import of raw materials. The European Commission has recognized that some raw materials are crucial for the function of the European economy and show a high risk of supply shortage. This communication addresses supply and substitution options for selected critical raw materials: cobalt, niobium, tungsten, yttrium, and the rare earth elements. For each element, the most relevant data concerning mining, abundance, recycling rates and possible substitutes are summarized and discussed.