The business group is the organizational form normally adopted by European firms to manage diversified activities. Italy is an interesting case of analysis given the importance of small and medium-sized business groups. Italian groups show a dichotomous structure: there are few groups of large size with a significant economic weight and many small and medium-sized groups. During the last decade, the number of business groups is increased and also their relevance within the Italian economy (ISTAT, 2015). The phenomenon of business groups is widespread both in emerging and in developed markets. In fact, the literature emphasizes that this organization is widespread across all size classes and all countries (Bae et al., 2008; 2002; Fan et al., 2005; Ferris et al., 2003; Gopalan et al., 2007; Khanna & Yafeh, 2007). Nowadays, firms are realizing the importance of networking and clustering to develop and share knowledge and innovation. This is especially true when there are changes or market shocks. Collaboration and networking are fundamental to survive and grow. Belonging to a group may allow affiliated firms to enhance their performance compared to corresponding standalone firms. The literature on business groups is wide and miscellaneous, and not always aligned in its results. Different findings may also depend on the different contexts in which business groups are observed. In the past, business groups were generally associated with market inefficiencies. Indeed, their development stemmed from the need to replace inefficient institutions or they represented a way for majority shareholders to appropriate resources from minority shareholders. This means that the group assumed a negative meaning in the presence of expropriation of resources and a substitute role in case of market inefficiencies (Morck & Yeung, 2003). The common view was that groups should not be developed in the presence of stable and efficient markets. During the last decade, the consideration about the role of business groups shifted towards a positive view in which they are considered an efficient mechanics in fostering and stimulating the economic and innovative performance of affiliated firms (Belenzon & Berkovitz, 2010; Hamelin, 2011). Indeed, the growth of groups is not just driven by a situation of inefficiency, but it is seen as an opportunity for firms to develop and foster innovative activities. In fact, the economic and innovative performance of business groups are favored by the superior capacity of affiliated firms to benefit from the internal capital market . In this sense, the internal capital market does not represent a way to expropriate resources to controlled firms from the majority shareholders, but on the contrary, it fosters the development of all affiliated firms. In the last years, both the R&D expenses and the innovative performance have assumed a fundamental role for the growth and the survival of firms. R&D expenses and the innovative performance (such as patent activity) are risky investments and they need large financing. For this reason, business groups are advantaged in sustaining this type of investments by benefiting from both the internal capital market and an easier access to the external capital market (such as bank financing). Although the attention of researchers on resource allocation mechanisms and on the innovative performance in business groups is increasing, the literature is still underdeveloped. Specifically there are still some theoretical and empirical issues to be further investigated. A theoretical issue concerns the decision to centralize or decentralize the R&D activity in diversified firms (i.e. multidivisional firms and business groups) by considering the influence of several factors (such as diversification, the nature of R&D etc.). It is not still clear the best way to organize the R&D, in order to develop the innovative performance. Empirical issues concern the relation between the diversification and the R&D organization in decentralized firms, the influence of the R&D organization into the innovative performance and the role played by the internal capital market in sustaining the R&D and innovative activities. The Italian case represents a significant example to empirically investigate these issues, given the large presence of small and medium-sized business groups. I use a new and unique dataset of Italian manufacturing firms, developed using ownership information about joint stock companies drawn from the AIDA database and patenting information from the ORBIS database. Furthermore, I consider the JRC-OECD database containing patenting information on the world top corporate R&D investors (Demis et al., 2015). The latter is used for a comparison with the Italian business groups, to investigate whether the organization of R&D follows common rules or depends on the context in which business groups operate. The following thesis is therefore composed of three empirical papers, preceded by a theoretical paper on the organization of R&D, in terms of centralization or decentralization. The first paper examines the state of the art about the organization of R&D in diversified firms: i.e. multidivisional firms and business groups. R&D investments are becoming a key issue for the innovative performance of firms. In the case of business groups and other diversified organizations (such as multidivisional firms) the organization of R&D is relevant in influencing its impact on the innovative performance. Most of the papers on this issue are empirical papers where the theoretical approaches are not always clear. For this reason, the main aim of this paper is to discuss the theoretical approaches that explain how R&D should be organized in diversified firms. Special emphasis is given to the degree of centralization or decentralization in the management of R&D. I identify three issues on which there are still open and controversial questions: 1) the nature of R&D (basic versus applied); 2) the interplay between the external acquisition of knowledge and the internal organization of R&D; 3) the role played by the degree of diversification. I also discuss the peculiarities of R&D organization in business groups as opposed to other forms of decentralized firms. The paper derives the main management implications for the organization of R&D in diversified firms and discusses the questions that remain open to further research. From a theoretical point of view, there are contrasting views on the relation between diversification and the organization of R&D. I developed a work to investigate empirically the relation between the degree of diversification and the organization of R&D activity in Italian business groups. Business groups represent an ideal setting to address this research question. Furthermore, I examine whether the findings related to Italian business groups are consistent with the sample of the world top corporate R&D investors (JRC-OECD database). According to some authors (Hill, Martin, & Harris, 2000; Leiponen & Helfat, 2011), we should observe a positive relation between the degree of diversification and the decentralization of R&D. However, this conclusion is challenged by other approaches (Cassiman & Gambardella, 2009) that emphasize the benefits of a centralized R&D whose results may subsequently be applied to diversified units. The decision to centralize or decentralized may be also influenced by the type of R&D (i.e. basic versus applied research), the type of diversification (i.e. related versus unrelated diversification) and the appropriability of R&D results (Guzzini & Iacobucci, 2014b). There are few empirical papers examining these issues and analysing the relation between the organization of R&D and the innovative performance of firms. I used the AIDA database containing information on manufacturing Italian companies. On the basis of ownership ties between companies, this dataset allowed me to construct a map of manufacturing business groups in 2012 and to know the position of the companies within the group. The legal autonomy accorded to the individual companies in a group allows me to better measure the degree and type of diversification and relate it to R&D organization and the innovation performance. The dataset also provides information on the patenting activity of firms, taken from the ORBIS database. As mentioned above, I also use the JRC-OECD database containing patenting information on the world top corporate R&D investors ” (Demis et al., 2015). The main results of this paper may be summarized as follows: a) the degree of diversification is positively related to the decentralization of R&D; b) in groups where R&D activities is conducted by controlled firms and not by heads (decentralized groups), there is a negative relation between the degree of diversification and the concentration of patents in a single controlled firm; c) regarding the innovative performance, the centralization of R&D activity may limit the patent production. The paper highlights the tight relation between R&D organization and innovative performance. This means that it is important to know the implications of the organization of R&D on influencing the innovative performance. As discussed before, R&D investments are highly risky and they require a large amount of resource allocation. Firms in business groups may use two different sources to support innovative activity, i.e. the external capital market (such as bank financing) and the internal transfer of funds between affiliated firms (internal capital markets). The presence of an internal capital market may help affiliated firms to overcome potential constraints in financing innovative activities. The need to collect and allocate resources for firms may be stronger and evident in case of market instable situations, such as real and financial crisis. Consequently, the main aim of the third paper is to analyse the presence and intensity of bank financial constraints in firms belonging to business groups compared to standalone companies. Moreover, it is examined the relation between the external capital market (bank financing) and the internal capital market to investigate whether they are complement or substitute. Furthermore, in case of bank financing, I examined whether banks finance the head of the group (centralized case or portfolio effect) or directly the controlled firm that requires a bank loan (decentralized case or affiliation effect). I consider the period 2010-2012 when the financial crisis and the subsequent recession determined a situation of severe credit crunch. The paper uses the dataset of Italian manufacturing firms that includes standalone firms and firms affiliated to business groups. I compare the financial constraints of companies and groups and analyse the characteristics of them. Findings may be summarized in the following way: a) The affiliation to a business group facilitates the access to bank financing; however, firms belonging to a business are less dependent on bank financing than standalone firms. b) The presence of an internal capital market is a substitute both for the decision to access bank financing and for the amount of such financing; c) When considering centralization versus decentralization in raising bank financing in business groups, the portfolio effect prevails on the affiliation effect. In the last paper, it is analyzed the influence of the internal capital market into the innovative performance in business groups. The functioning of the internal capital market is an interesting issue to understand relations between controlling and controlled firms. In fact, several studies demonstrated that firms belonging to business groups show a superior innovative performance. This is explained by the advantages of groups in providing resources to affiliated companies. One of these resources is the capital needed to sustain R&D investment. The head of a group is supposed to have a better knowledge about the innovative projects of affiliated firms than external investors (such as banks, private investors or the market). As a result, the group may partially overcome the problems arising from information asymmetries, which are specifically relevant for the financing of innovative projects. Group heads may provide financial resources to affiliated companies in several ways. The most important for the financing of innovative projects is equity capital. Equity capital may be provided in two ways: directly, through the issue of new shares; indirectly, by restraining the distribution of dividends and allowing controlled companies to retain profits. The easier access to equity capital by affiliated company is expected to play a relevant role for the financing of R&D investment and the innovative performance. The paper is based on financial and patenting data referring to Italian companies. R&D investment and patents are used as measures of innovation performance. I use the dataset of Italian manufacturing firms mentioned above, whose data are taken from the intersection between the AIDA database and the ORBIS database. Using information from the balance sheets of companies, I analyse the equity ‘policy’ of companies belonging to groups and compare it with standalone companies. Data on the patenting activity of companies allow me to relate the innovative performance of companies to their equity ‘policy’ and measure to what extent the internal capital market observed in business groups influence the innovative performance. Findings may be summarized in the following way: a) the supply of equity capital is positively related with the innovation performance; b) the distribution of dividends is negatively related with the innovation performance, c) these relations are stronger in the case of controlled companies (compared with heads), given the role played by heads in the allocation of resources.
Il gruppo d’impresa è la forma organizzativa normalmente adottata dalle imprese europee per gestire attività diversificate. L'Italia è un caso di analisi interessante data l'importanza delle piccole e medie imprese. I gruppi italiani mostrano una struttura dicotomica: ci sono pochi gruppi di grandi dimensioni con un peso economico significativo e molti gruppi di piccole e medie dimensioni. Durante l'ultimo decennio, il numero di gruppi di imprese è aumentato e anche la loro rilevanza all'interno dell'economia italiana (ISTAT, 2015). Il fenomeno dei gruppi imprenditoriali è diffuso sia nei mercati emergenti che nei mercati sviluppati. In effetti, la letteratura sottolinea che questa organizzazione è diffusa in tutte le classi dimensionali e in tutti i paesi (Bae et al., 2008; 2002; Fan et al., 2005; Ferris et al., 2003; Gopalan et al., 2007; Khanna & Yafeh, 2007). Oggigiorno, le imprese stanno capendo l'importanza del networking e del clustering per sviluppare e condividere conoscenze e innovazione. Questo è particolarmente vero quando ci sono cambiamenti o shock di mercato. Collaborazione e networking sono fondamentali per sopravvivere e crescere. L'appartenenza a un gruppo può consentire alle imprese affiliate di migliorare le loro prestazioni rispetto alle corrispondenti aziende indipendenti. La letteratura sui gruppi è ampia e varia, e non sempre allineata nei suoi risultati. Differenti risultati possono anche dipendere dai diversi contesti in cui vengono osservati i gruppi d’impresa. In passato, i gruppi d’impresa erano generalmente associati alle inefficienze del mercato. In effetti, il loro sviluppo derivava dalla necessità di sostituire istituzioni inefficienti o rappresentavano un modo per gli azionisti di maggioranza di appropriarsi delle risorse degli azionisti di minoranza. Ciò significa che il gruppo ha assunto un significato negativo in presenza di espropri di risorse e un ruolo sostitutivo in caso di inefficienze del mercato (Morck & Yeung, 2003). L'opinione comune era che i gruppi non dovessero essere sviluppati in presenza di mercati stabili ed efficienti. Durante l'ultimo decennio, la considerazione sul ruolo dei gruppi di impresa si è spostata verso una visione positiva in cui sono considerati un meccanismo efficiente nel promuovere e stimolare la performance economica e innovativa delle imprese affiliate (Belenzon e Berkovitz, 2010; Hamelin, 2011). In effetti, la crescita dei gruppi non è guidata solo da una situazione di inefficienza, ma è vista come un'opportunità per le imprese di sviluppare e promuovere attività innovative. In effetti, le performance economiche e innovative dei gruppi di impresa sono favorite dalla capacità superiore delle imprese affiliate di beneficiare del mercato interno dei capitali. In questo senso, il mercato interno dei capitali non rappresenta un modo per espropriare le risorse dell imprese controllate da parte degli azionisti di maggioranza, ma al contrario, favorisce lo sviluppo di tutte le imprese affiliate. Negli ultimi anni, sia le spese in ricerca e sviluppo (R&S) sia la performance innovativa hanno assunto un ruolo fondamentale per la crescita e la sopravvivenza delle imprese. La R&S e la performance innovativa (in termini di attività brevettuale) sono investimenti rischiosi e richiedono grandi finanziamenti. Per questo motivo, i gruppi sono avvantaggiati nel sostenere questo tipo di investimenti beneficiando sia del mercato interno dei capitali sia di un più facile accesso al mercato dei capitali esterni (come il finanziamento bancario). Sebbene l'attenzione dei ricercatori sui meccanismi di allocazione delle risorse e sulla performance innovativa nei gruppi sia in aumento, la letteratura è ancora poco sviluppata. Nello specifico ci sono ancora alcune questioni teoriche ed empiriche da approfondire. Una questione teorica riguarda la decisione di centralizzare o decentralizzare l'attività di R&S in società diversificate (vale a dire imprese multidivisionali e gruppi di imprese) considerando l'influenza di diversi fattori (quali la diversificazione, la natura della R&S, ecc.). Non è ancora chiaro il modo migliore per organizzare la R&S, al fine di sviluppare la performance innovativa. Le questioni empiriche riguardano la relazione tra la diversificazione e l'organizzazione di R&S nelle imprese decentralizzate, l'influenza dell'organizzazione di R&S sulla performance innovativa e il ruolo svolto dal mercato interno dei capitali nel sostenere la R&S e le attività innovative. Il caso italiano rappresenta un esempio significativo per indagare empiricamente su questi temi, data l'ampia presenza di gruppi di imprese di piccole e medie dimensioni. La banca dati utilizzata è un nuovo database di imprese manifatturiere italiane, sviluppato utilizzando le informazioni di proprietà sulle società per azioni tratte dal database AIDA e le informazioni sui brevetti dal database ORBIS. Inoltre, si considera la banca dati JRC-OCSE contenente informazioni sui brevetti dei principali investitori mondiali di ricerca e sviluppo (Demis et al., 2015). Quest'ultimo viene utilizzato per un confronto con i gruppi d’impresa italiani, per verificare se l'organizzazione di R&S segue regole comuni o dipende dal contesto in cui operano i gruppi. La seguente tesi è quindi composta da tre papers empirici, preceduti da un paper teorico sull'organizzazione della R&S, in termini di centralizzazione o decentralizzazione. Nello specifico, il primo lavoro teorico esamina lo stato dell'arte sull'organizzazione della R&S in imprese diversificate: vale a dire imprese multidivisionali e gruppi di imprese. Gli investimenti in R&S stanno diventando una questione chiave per la performance innovativa delle imprese. Nel caso di gruppi di imprese e altre organizzazioni diversificate (come le imprese multidivisionali) l'organizzazione della R&S è rilevante nell’influenzare la performance innovativa. La maggior parte dei lavori su questo tema sono papers empirici in cui gli approcci teorici non sono sempre chiari. Per questo motivo, l'obiettivo principale di questo articolo è discutere gli approcci teorici che spiegano come la R&S dovrebbe essere organizzata in aziende diversificate. Un accento particolare è posto sul grado di centralizzazione o decentralizzazione nella gestione della R&S. Si individuano tre questioni su cui ci sono ancora domande aperte e controverse: 1) la natura della R&S (base versus applicata); 2) l'interazione tra l'acquisizione esterna di conoscenza e l'organizzazione interna di R&S; 3) il ruolo svolto dal grado di diversificazione. Si discute anche delle peculiarità dell'organizzazione R&S nei gruppi di impresa rispetto ad altre forme di imprese decentralizzate. Il lavoro trae le principali implicazioni gestionali per l'organizzazione della R&S in aziende diversificate e discute le questioni che rimangono aperte per ulteriori ricerche. Da un punto di vista teorico, vi sono opinioni contrastanti sulla relazione tra diversificazione e organizzazione della R&S. Per questo motivo, si è sviluppato un lavoro per indagare empiricamente la relazione tra il grado di diversificazione e l'organizzazione delle attività di ricerca e sviluppo nei gruppi italiani. I gruppi rappresentano un campione ideale per affrontare questa research question. Inoltre, vengono esaminati se i risultati relativi ai gruppi italiani siano coerenti con il campione dei principali investitori mondiali in R&S (database JRC-OCSE). Secondo alcuni autori (Hill, Martin, & Harris, 2000, Leiponen e Helfat, 2011), dovremmo osservare una relazione positiva tra il grado di diversificazione e il decentramento della R&S. Tuttavia, questa conclusione è ostacolata da altri approcci (Cassiman e Gambardella, 2009) che enfatizzano i vantaggi di una R&S centralizzata i cui risultati possono essere successivamente applicati a unità diversificate. La decisione di centralizzare o decentrare può anche essere influenzata dal tipo di ricerca e sviluppo (cioè ricerca di base e ricerca applicata), dal tipo di diversificazione (cioè dalla diversificazione correlata e non correlata) e dall'adeguatezza dei risultati di R&S (Guzzini e Iacobucci, 2014b). Esistono pochi papers empirici che esaminano questi problemi e analizzano la relazione tra l'organizzazione della R&S e la performance innovativa delle imprese. Al fine di investigare tale fenomeno, si è utilizzato il database AIDA contenente informazioni sulle imprese italiane manifatturiere. Sulla base dei legami di proprietà tra società, questo set di dati ha permesso di costruire una mappa dei gruppi di imprese manifatturiere nel 2012 e di conoscere la posizione delle società all'interno del gruppo. L'autonomia legale accordata alle singole società in un gruppo consente di misurare meglio il grado e il tipo di diversificazione e di metterlo in relazione con l'organizzazione R&S e le performance innovative. Il campione fornisce anche informazioni sull'attività brevettuale delle imprese, prese dal database ORBIS. Come accennato in precedenza, si utilizza anche la banca dati JRC-OCSE che contiene informazioni sui brevetti dei principali investitori mondiali in R&S "(Demis et al., 2015). I principali risultati di questo paper possono essere riassunti nei seguenti punti: a) il grado di diversificazione è positivamente correlato al decentramento della R&S; b) nei gruppi in cui le attività di R&S sono condotte da imprese controllate e non dalla capogruppo (gruppi decentrati), esiste una relazione negativa tra il grado di diversificazione e la concentrazione dei brevetti in una singola impresa controllata; c) per quanto riguarda la performance innovativa, la centralizzazione dell'attività di R&S può limitare la produzione di brevetti. Il seguente paper evidenzia la stretta relazione tra l'organizzazione di R&S e la performance innovativa in termini di brevetti. Come discusso in precedenza, gli investimenti in R&S sono altamente rischiosi e richiedono una grande quantità di risorse. Le imprese nei gruppi possono utilizzare due fonti diverse per sostenere attività innovative, vale a dire il mercato dei capitali esterni (come il finanziamento bancario) e il trasferimento interno di fondi tra imprese affiliate (mercato interno dei capitali). La presenza di un mercato interno dei capitali può aiutare le imprese affiliate a superare i potenziali vincoli nel finanziamento di attività innovative. La necessità di raccogliere e allocare risorse per le imprese può essere più forte ed evidente in caso di situazioni di instabilità del mercato, come una crisi reale e finanziaria. Di conseguenza, l'obiettivo principale del terzo lavoro è quello di analizzare la presenza e l'intensità dei vincoli finanziari delle banche nelle imprese appartenenti a gruppi rispetto alle società indipendenti. Inoltre, viene esaminata la relazione tra il mercato esterno dei capitali (finanziamento bancario) e il mercato interno dei capitali per verificare se sono complementari o sostitutivi. Inoltre, in presenza di finanziamento bancario, si è esaminato il caso in cui le banche finanziassero direttamente la capogruppo (caso centralizzato o effetto portafoglio) o direttamente l'impresa controllata che richiede un prestito bancario (caso decentrato o effetto di affiliazione). Il periodo considerato è il biennio 2010-2012 quando la crisi finanziaria e la successiva recessione hanno determinato una situazione di forte razionamento del credito. Il lavoro utilizza il campione di dati delle imprese manifatturiere italiane che comprende imprese indipendenti e imprese appartenenti a gruppi. Vengono confrontati i vincoli finanziari delle imprese autonome e dei gruppi e si analizzano le loro caratteristiche. I risultati possono essere riassunti nel modo seguente: a) l'affiliazione a un gruppo facilita l'accesso al finanziamento bancario; tuttavia, le imprese appartenenti a gruppo sono meno dipendenti dal finanziamento bancario rispetto alle imprese indipendenti. b) La presenza di un mercato interno dei capitali è un sostituto del finanziamento bancario sia nella decisione di accesso al finanziamento bancario sia relativamente all'importo di tale finanziamento; c) Quando si considera la centralizzazione rispetto al decentramento nel reperimento di finanziamenti bancari in gruppi d’impresa, l'effetto del portafoglio prevale sull'effetto di affiliazione. Nell'ultimo articolo, viene analizzata l'influenza del mercato interno dei capitali sulla performance innovativa dei gruppi di impresa. Il funzionamento del mercato interno dei capitali è una questione interessante per comprendere i rapporti tra imprese controllanti e controllate. In effetti, diversi studi hanno dimostrato che le imprese appartenenti a gruppi mostrano performance innovative superiori. Ciò è spiegato dai vantaggi dei gruppi nel distribuire facilmente risorse tra le imprese affiliate. Una di queste risorse è il capitale necessario per sostenere gli investimenti in R&S. Si suppone che la capogruppo abbia una migliore conoscenza dei progetti innovativi delle imprese affiliate rispetto agli investitori esterni (come banche, investitori privati o il mercato). Di conseguenza, il gruppo può parzialmente superare i problemi derivanti dalle asimmetrie informative, che sono specificamente rilevanti per il finanziamento di progetti innovativi. Le capogruppo possono fornire risorse finanziarie alle imprese affiliate in diversi modi. Il più importante per il finanziamento di progetti innovativi è il capitale azionario. Il capitale azionario può essere fornito in due modi: direttamente, attraverso l'emissione di nuove azioni; indirettamente, limitando la distribuzione dei dividendi e consentendo alle imprese controllate di trattenere i profitti. Si suppone che il più facile accesso al capitale azionario da parte delle imprese controllate favorirà il finanziamento degli investimenti in R&S e la performance innovativa. Il seguente lavoro si basa su dati finanziari e brevettuali relativi alle imprese italiane. Gli investimenti in R&S e i brevetti sono usati come misure di performance innovativa. Viene utilizzato di nuovo il set di dati delle imprese manifatturiere italiane in precedenza menzionato, i cui dati appunto sono ricavati dall'intersezione tra il database AIDA e il database ORBIS. Utilizzando le informazioni dei bilanci delle società, si analizza la "politica" azionaria delle imprese appartenenti a gruppi e la si confronta con le società indipendenti. I dati sull'attività brevettuale delle varie imprese consentono di collegare la loro performance innovativa alla loro "politica" azionaria e di misurare fino a che punto il mercato interno dei capitali osservato nei gruppi di imprese influenza la performance innovativa. I risultati possono essere riassunti nel modo seguente: a) la fornitura di capitale proprio è positivamente correlata alla performance innovativa; b) la distribuzione dei dividendi è negativamente correlata alla performance innovativa, c) queste relazioni sono più forti nel caso delle imprese controllate rispetto alle capogruppo (head), dato il ruolo svolto da queste ultime nell'allocazione delle risorse.
Resource allocation mechanisms, R&D organization and innovative performance in business groups / Giannini, Valentina. - (2018 Mar 27).
Resource allocation mechanisms, R&D organization and innovative performance in business groups.
GIANNINI, VALENTINA
2018-03-27
Abstract
The business group is the organizational form normally adopted by European firms to manage diversified activities. Italy is an interesting case of analysis given the importance of small and medium-sized business groups. Italian groups show a dichotomous structure: there are few groups of large size with a significant economic weight and many small and medium-sized groups. During the last decade, the number of business groups is increased and also their relevance within the Italian economy (ISTAT, 2015). The phenomenon of business groups is widespread both in emerging and in developed markets. In fact, the literature emphasizes that this organization is widespread across all size classes and all countries (Bae et al., 2008; 2002; Fan et al., 2005; Ferris et al., 2003; Gopalan et al., 2007; Khanna & Yafeh, 2007). Nowadays, firms are realizing the importance of networking and clustering to develop and share knowledge and innovation. This is especially true when there are changes or market shocks. Collaboration and networking are fundamental to survive and grow. Belonging to a group may allow affiliated firms to enhance their performance compared to corresponding standalone firms. The literature on business groups is wide and miscellaneous, and not always aligned in its results. Different findings may also depend on the different contexts in which business groups are observed. In the past, business groups were generally associated with market inefficiencies. Indeed, their development stemmed from the need to replace inefficient institutions or they represented a way for majority shareholders to appropriate resources from minority shareholders. This means that the group assumed a negative meaning in the presence of expropriation of resources and a substitute role in case of market inefficiencies (Morck & Yeung, 2003). The common view was that groups should not be developed in the presence of stable and efficient markets. During the last decade, the consideration about the role of business groups shifted towards a positive view in which they are considered an efficient mechanics in fostering and stimulating the economic and innovative performance of affiliated firms (Belenzon & Berkovitz, 2010; Hamelin, 2011). Indeed, the growth of groups is not just driven by a situation of inefficiency, but it is seen as an opportunity for firms to develop and foster innovative activities. In fact, the economic and innovative performance of business groups are favored by the superior capacity of affiliated firms to benefit from the internal capital market . In this sense, the internal capital market does not represent a way to expropriate resources to controlled firms from the majority shareholders, but on the contrary, it fosters the development of all affiliated firms. In the last years, both the R&D expenses and the innovative performance have assumed a fundamental role for the growth and the survival of firms. R&D expenses and the innovative performance (such as patent activity) are risky investments and they need large financing. For this reason, business groups are advantaged in sustaining this type of investments by benefiting from both the internal capital market and an easier access to the external capital market (such as bank financing). Although the attention of researchers on resource allocation mechanisms and on the innovative performance in business groups is increasing, the literature is still underdeveloped. Specifically there are still some theoretical and empirical issues to be further investigated. A theoretical issue concerns the decision to centralize or decentralize the R&D activity in diversified firms (i.e. multidivisional firms and business groups) by considering the influence of several factors (such as diversification, the nature of R&D etc.). It is not still clear the best way to organize the R&D, in order to develop the innovative performance. Empirical issues concern the relation between the diversification and the R&D organization in decentralized firms, the influence of the R&D organization into the innovative performance and the role played by the internal capital market in sustaining the R&D and innovative activities. The Italian case represents a significant example to empirically investigate these issues, given the large presence of small and medium-sized business groups. I use a new and unique dataset of Italian manufacturing firms, developed using ownership information about joint stock companies drawn from the AIDA database and patenting information from the ORBIS database. Furthermore, I consider the JRC-OECD database containing patenting information on the world top corporate R&D investors (Demis et al., 2015). The latter is used for a comparison with the Italian business groups, to investigate whether the organization of R&D follows common rules or depends on the context in which business groups operate. The following thesis is therefore composed of three empirical papers, preceded by a theoretical paper on the organization of R&D, in terms of centralization or decentralization. The first paper examines the state of the art about the organization of R&D in diversified firms: i.e. multidivisional firms and business groups. R&D investments are becoming a key issue for the innovative performance of firms. In the case of business groups and other diversified organizations (such as multidivisional firms) the organization of R&D is relevant in influencing its impact on the innovative performance. Most of the papers on this issue are empirical papers where the theoretical approaches are not always clear. For this reason, the main aim of this paper is to discuss the theoretical approaches that explain how R&D should be organized in diversified firms. Special emphasis is given to the degree of centralization or decentralization in the management of R&D. I identify three issues on which there are still open and controversial questions: 1) the nature of R&D (basic versus applied); 2) the interplay between the external acquisition of knowledge and the internal organization of R&D; 3) the role played by the degree of diversification. I also discuss the peculiarities of R&D organization in business groups as opposed to other forms of decentralized firms. The paper derives the main management implications for the organization of R&D in diversified firms and discusses the questions that remain open to further research. From a theoretical point of view, there are contrasting views on the relation between diversification and the organization of R&D. I developed a work to investigate empirically the relation between the degree of diversification and the organization of R&D activity in Italian business groups. Business groups represent an ideal setting to address this research question. Furthermore, I examine whether the findings related to Italian business groups are consistent with the sample of the world top corporate R&D investors (JRC-OECD database). According to some authors (Hill, Martin, & Harris, 2000; Leiponen & Helfat, 2011), we should observe a positive relation between the degree of diversification and the decentralization of R&D. However, this conclusion is challenged by other approaches (Cassiman & Gambardella, 2009) that emphasize the benefits of a centralized R&D whose results may subsequently be applied to diversified units. The decision to centralize or decentralized may be also influenced by the type of R&D (i.e. basic versus applied research), the type of diversification (i.e. related versus unrelated diversification) and the appropriability of R&D results (Guzzini & Iacobucci, 2014b). There are few empirical papers examining these issues and analysing the relation between the organization of R&D and the innovative performance of firms. I used the AIDA database containing information on manufacturing Italian companies. On the basis of ownership ties between companies, this dataset allowed me to construct a map of manufacturing business groups in 2012 and to know the position of the companies within the group. The legal autonomy accorded to the individual companies in a group allows me to better measure the degree and type of diversification and relate it to R&D organization and the innovation performance. The dataset also provides information on the patenting activity of firms, taken from the ORBIS database. As mentioned above, I also use the JRC-OECD database containing patenting information on the world top corporate R&D investors ” (Demis et al., 2015). The main results of this paper may be summarized as follows: a) the degree of diversification is positively related to the decentralization of R&D; b) in groups where R&D activities is conducted by controlled firms and not by heads (decentralized groups), there is a negative relation between the degree of diversification and the concentration of patents in a single controlled firm; c) regarding the innovative performance, the centralization of R&D activity may limit the patent production. The paper highlights the tight relation between R&D organization and innovative performance. This means that it is important to know the implications of the organization of R&D on influencing the innovative performance. As discussed before, R&D investments are highly risky and they require a large amount of resource allocation. Firms in business groups may use two different sources to support innovative activity, i.e. the external capital market (such as bank financing) and the internal transfer of funds between affiliated firms (internal capital markets). The presence of an internal capital market may help affiliated firms to overcome potential constraints in financing innovative activities. The need to collect and allocate resources for firms may be stronger and evident in case of market instable situations, such as real and financial crisis. Consequently, the main aim of the third paper is to analyse the presence and intensity of bank financial constraints in firms belonging to business groups compared to standalone companies. Moreover, it is examined the relation between the external capital market (bank financing) and the internal capital market to investigate whether they are complement or substitute. Furthermore, in case of bank financing, I examined whether banks finance the head of the group (centralized case or portfolio effect) or directly the controlled firm that requires a bank loan (decentralized case or affiliation effect). I consider the period 2010-2012 when the financial crisis and the subsequent recession determined a situation of severe credit crunch. The paper uses the dataset of Italian manufacturing firms that includes standalone firms and firms affiliated to business groups. I compare the financial constraints of companies and groups and analyse the characteristics of them. Findings may be summarized in the following way: a) The affiliation to a business group facilitates the access to bank financing; however, firms belonging to a business are less dependent on bank financing than standalone firms. b) The presence of an internal capital market is a substitute both for the decision to access bank financing and for the amount of such financing; c) When considering centralization versus decentralization in raising bank financing in business groups, the portfolio effect prevails on the affiliation effect. In the last paper, it is analyzed the influence of the internal capital market into the innovative performance in business groups. The functioning of the internal capital market is an interesting issue to understand relations between controlling and controlled firms. In fact, several studies demonstrated that firms belonging to business groups show a superior innovative performance. This is explained by the advantages of groups in providing resources to affiliated companies. One of these resources is the capital needed to sustain R&D investment. The head of a group is supposed to have a better knowledge about the innovative projects of affiliated firms than external investors (such as banks, private investors or the market). As a result, the group may partially overcome the problems arising from information asymmetries, which are specifically relevant for the financing of innovative projects. Group heads may provide financial resources to affiliated companies in several ways. The most important for the financing of innovative projects is equity capital. Equity capital may be provided in two ways: directly, through the issue of new shares; indirectly, by restraining the distribution of dividends and allowing controlled companies to retain profits. The easier access to equity capital by affiliated company is expected to play a relevant role for the financing of R&D investment and the innovative performance. The paper is based on financial and patenting data referring to Italian companies. R&D investment and patents are used as measures of innovation performance. I use the dataset of Italian manufacturing firms mentioned above, whose data are taken from the intersection between the AIDA database and the ORBIS database. Using information from the balance sheets of companies, I analyse the equity ‘policy’ of companies belonging to groups and compare it with standalone companies. Data on the patenting activity of companies allow me to relate the innovative performance of companies to their equity ‘policy’ and measure to what extent the internal capital market observed in business groups influence the innovative performance. Findings may be summarized in the following way: a) the supply of equity capital is positively related with the innovation performance; b) the distribution of dividends is negatively related with the innovation performance, c) these relations are stronger in the case of controlled companies (compared with heads), given the role played by heads in the allocation of resources.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Tesi_Giannini.pdf
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